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Yerleşme Doku ve Tipleri - Coğrafya Bilimi İçeriğe atla Yerleşmelerin sınıflandırılmasında birçok ölçüt kullanılmaktadır. Yerleşmeler kırsal ve şehirsel (kentsel) yerleşme olmak üzere ikiye ayrılır. Böyle bir ayrım yapılmakla birlikte yerleşmelerin özelliği zamanla değişebilir. Örneğin Batman ve Karabük, önceden birer kırsal yerleşme iken zamanla şehirsel yerleşme hâlini almıştır.
1. Kırsal YerleşmeTemel ekonomik faaliyetlerin tarım, hayvancılık, ormancılık ve balıkçılık olduğu yerleşmelere kırsal yerleşme denir. Kırsal yerleşmelerde belirli düzeyde madencilik ve turizm faaliyetleri de yapılır. Kırsal ve şehirsel yerleşmelerin sınıflandırılmasında kullanılan nüfus ölçütü ülkeden ülkeye değişmektedir. Bu tür yerleşmelerde nüfus ölçütünün 5.000, 10.000 ve 20.000 şeklinde kullanılmasına yönelik görüşler vardır. Kırsal yerleşmeler ; köyden küçük ve köye bağlı yerleşmeler, köyler ve kasabalardan oluşmaktadır. Bu yerleşmelerin ortaya çıkmasında, kuruldukları yerin doğal çevre şartları ve orada yaşayan insanların kültürel özellikleri etkilidir. Kırsal yerleşmeler; nüfusun büyüklüğüne, kuruldukları yere, dokularına, yerleşme planlarına ve ekonomik işlevlerine göre farklı şekillerde sınıflandırılabilir (Tablo 2.3.).
Nüfusun Büyüklüğüne Göre Kırsal YerleşmelerKasaba; nüfusu, fiziksel özellikleri, işlevleri ve yaşam koşullarıyla köy ile şehir arasında geçiş özelliği gösteren yerleşmelere denir. Genel olarak nüfusun 2.000 ile 10.000 arasında olduğu kabul edilir. Ekonomik faaliyetler daha çok tarım ve hayvancılık olmakla beraber kasabalarda küçük çaplı ticari faaliyetler yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca bu yerleşmelerde küçük atölyeler ve belediye hizmetleri de bulunur.
Köy, ekonomisi genellikle tarım ve hayvancılığa dayanan ve nüfusu 2.000’den az olan yerleşmelere denir. Bu yerleşmelerde otlak, orman, ibadethane, okul, çeşme, yayla vb. ortak kullanım alanları bulunur.
Köyden küçük ve köye bağlı yerleşmeler, tek mesken ile köy arasındaki yerleşmelere denir. Bu yerleşmelerin ortaya çıkmasının nedenleri şunlardır:
• Devlet arazilerinin toprağı olmayan ailelere verilmesi • Arazinin engebeli olması • Tarım arazilerinin yaşam alanlarına uzak olması • Hayvanları otlatma alanlarının sınırlı olması • Aileler arasında anlaşmazlık olması vb.
Köyden küçük yerleşmeler geçici ya da sürekli yerleşme özelliği gösterir. Yayla, kom, ağıl, oba, dam, dalyan geçici yerleşme; çiftlik, mahalle, mezra ve divan sürekli yerleşmedir. Ancak geçici yerleşmeler, zamanla sürekli yerleşmelere dönüşebilir.
Bir ülkede küçük yerleşmelerin sayısının fazla olması bazı problemlere yol açabilir. Bu yerleşmelere hizmetlerin (eğitim, sağlık, güvenlik, ulaşım vb.) götürülmesinde zaman zaman aksamalar olabilir. Bu nedenle bazı ülkelerde küçük yerleşmeler sınırlandırılmıştır.
Dokusuna Göre Kırsal YerleşmelerYerleşme birimlerinin en küçüğü evdir. Buna yerleşme çekirdeği (nüve) denir. Yerleşme çekirdeklerinin dağılışı yerleşme dokusunu oluşturur. Bu dağılışın oluşmasında yeryüzü şekilleri, su kaynakları, ekonomik faaliyet tipi ve güvenlik gibi faktörler etkili olmuştur. Evlerin birbirine uzak olduğu yerleşmelere dağınık yerleşme denir. Arazinin engebeli, su kaynaklarının fazla ve tarım alanlarının parçalı olduğu yerlerde görülen bu tür yerleşmeler, Karadeniz’de diğer bölgelere göre daha yaygındır.
Engebenin az ve su kaynaklarının yetersiz olduğu yerlerde evler birbirine yakındır. Bu tür yerleşmelere toplu dokulu yerleşme denir. Evlerin genellikle su kuyusu, çeşme ya da dinî yapıların etrafında bulunduğu bu tür yerleşmeler, İç Anadolu ve Güneydoğu Anadolu’da yaygındır.
Evlerin rastgele ve geniş alanlara dağılmasıyla oluşan yerleşmeye gevşek dokulu yerleşme denir. Gevşek dokulu yerleşmelerin oluşmasında arazinin yapısı, genişliği, yapılan ekonomik faaliyet, toplumsal ilişkiler gibi faktörler etkili olmuştur. Bu yerleşme türü Karadeniz kıyı kuşağında yaygındır.
Yerleşme Planına Göre Kırsal YerleşmelerKırsal yerleşmeler, doğal ve beşerî çevre etmenlerine bağlı olarak belirli görünüş biçimleri kazanmıştır. Yerleşme çekirdeklerinin bir yolun etrafında sıralanmasıyla yol boyu yerleşmeleri oluşmuştur. Demir yolu, su kanalı, akarsu vadisi gibi uzunlamasına yer alan unsurların etrafında hat boyu (çizgisel) yerleşmeler oluşmuştur. Genellikle yolların etrafında değişik doğrultularda oluşan yerleşmelere ışınsal planlı yerleşme denir. Engebenin az olduğu alanlarda yerleşme çekirdeklerinin bir meydanın etrafında toplanmasına dairesel planlı yerleşme denir. Yerleşme çekirdeklerinin birbirine yakın ve düzensiz konumlandırıldığı yerleşmelere de küme planlı yerleşme adı verilir.
Kuruldukları Yere Göre Kırsal YerleşmelerKırsal yerleşmeler kuruluş yerleri bakımından farklılık gösterir. Bunda çeşitli doğal ve beşerî etmenler etkili olmuştur. Kırsal yerleşmeler; genellikle akarsu kenarlarında, vadi içlerinde, dağların eteklerinde, su bulunan ovalarda, orman arazisine yakın alanlarda, deniz ve göl kenarlarında bulunur.
Ekonomik İşlevlerine Göre Kırsal YerleşmelerKırsal yerleşmelerin sınıflandırılmasında kullanılan ölçütlerden biri de ekonomik faaliyetlerin türüdür. Kırsal yerleşmeler; tarım, hayvancılık, turizm, madencilik, balıkçılık, ormancılık ve dokumacılık gibi faaliyetlere göre sınıflandırılabilir. Örneğin Bursa ilinde yer alan Cumalıkızık köyü, Osmanlıdan kalma tarihi dokusuyla turizm faaliyetlerinin ön plana çıktığı bir yerleşmedir.
2. Şehirsel (Kentsel) YerleşmeNüfusun kırsal yerleşmelerden fazla olduğu, tarım dışı ekonomik faaliyetlerin ön plana çıktığı, yatay ve dikey olarak büyüyen yerleşmelere şehir (kent) denir. Genelde belirli bir plan dâhilinde kurulur. Bilim insanları üzerinde henüz görüş birliği sağlayamamış olsa da genel olarak bu yerleşmelerin nüfusu 10.000’den fazladır. Nüfusun fazla; sanayi, ticaret, ulaşım, turizm gibi faaliyetlerin de çeşitli olması şehir yerleşmelerini kırsal yerleşmelerden ayıran en önemli özelliklerdir. Bu yerleşmeler, nüfus miktarı ve ekonomik işlevlerine göre sınıflandırılabilir (Tablo 2.4.).
Nüfus miktarına göre şehirler kendi içinde dört gruba ayrılır. Nüfusu 10.000 ile 100.000 arasında olan şehre küçük şehir, 100.001 ile 500.000 arasında olana orta büyüklükte şehir, 500.001 ile 1.000.000 arasında olana büyük şehir, 1.000.000’dan fazla olana da metropoliten şehir adı verilir.
Şehirler ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel faaliyetlerine göre de sınıfl andırılabilir. Ancak şehirlerde bazen bir bazen de birden fazla işlev ön planda olabilir.
Genellikle nüfusu 100.000’in altında olan şehirlerde hizmet sektörünün üstünlüğüne rağmen hâlâ tarım sektörünün etkileri gözlenir. Az da olsa tarıma dayalı küçük sanayi kollarının da bulunduğu bu şehirlerde yaşayan ailelerin bir kısmı, yakın çevrelerindeki toprakları ekip biçer ya da hayvancılık yapar. Bu grupta yer alan şehirlerde ormancılık, balıkçılık ve turizm faaliyetleri de yapılabilir. Rize, Yenişehir, Kırklareli, Akhisar, Burdur, Niğde, Kars, Şanlıurfa, Kadirli vb. şehirlerde tarım hâlâ belirgin bir ekonomik faaliyettir.
Sanayi Devrimi ile ortaya çıkan sanayi şehirlerinde çalışan nüfusun büyük çoğunluğu sanayi sektöründedir. Sanayi kuruluşları, bulundukları şehrin ve ülkenin yanı sıra diğer faaliyetlerin (ticaret, ulaşım vb.) gelişmesine de katkı sağlar. Manchester (Mençestır), Düsseldorf (Düsüldof), Detroit (Ditroit), İstanbul, Bursa, İzmit, İskenderun, Kırıkkale, Ereğli (Zonguldak) sanayi şehirlerine örnek verilebilir.
İdari işlevleri ön planda olan şehirlerde ülkenin ya da bölgenin yönetim merkezleri bulunur. Londra, Paris, Moskova, Roma başlıca idari şehirlere örnek verilebilir. Türkiye, kamu hizmetlerinin daha iyi yürütülebilmesi için idari bölümlere ayrılmıştır (iller ilçelere, ilçeler köylere) Bu idari birimlerin yönetim merkezi başkent Ankara’dır.
Kültür şehirlerinde bilim, sanat ve eğitim gibi çeşitli kültürel etkinlikler ön plandadır. Oxford (Aksfırd), Cambridge (Kimbriç), Kahire, İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Eskişehir başlıca kültürel şehirlere örnek verilebilir.
Askerî şehirlerde büyük askerî birlikler bulunmaktadır. Bu birliklerde binlerce askerin beslenme, barınma ve sosyal ihtiyaçlarının karşılanması gerekir. Bu durum, diğer sektörlerin de canlanmasını ve gelişmesini etkiler. Sarıkamış, İncirlik, Kırkağaç ve Eğirdir askerî şehirlere örnek verilebilir.
Ticaret şehri ana işlevin ticaret olduğu şehirdir. Ticaret, tarih boyunca devam eden ve günümüzde daha da önem kazanan bir faaliyettir. Ancak ticaretin bir şehirde gelişebilmesi için bazı koşullar gereklidir. Öncelikle şehrin önemli ulaşım yolları üzerinde bulunması gerekir. Diğer bir şart ise şehirde ekonomik değeri olan ürünlerin veya bunları tüketen bir nüfusun bulunmasıdır. New York (Niv York), Hong Kong (Hang Kâng), İstanbul, İzmir, Mersin, Trabzon ticaret şehirlerine örnek verilebilir.
Hinterlandı geniş olan ve ticaretin genellikle deniz ulaşımı ile yapıldığı şehirlere liman şehirleri denir. Rotterdam (Raderdam), Hamburg (Hambug), Marsilya, İstanbul, İzmir, Mersin liman şehirlerine örnek verilebilir. Bununla birlikte, dünyada deniz limanları kadar geniş etki alanına sahip olmasa da nehir limanları da vardır. Chicago (Şikago) şehri bu limana örnek verilebilir.
Bir yerleşim merkezinin özellikle bir limanın ticaret merkezi durumunda olduğu ve ürünlerini toplayıp gelen malları dağıttığı çevreye hinterlant (art bölge) adı verilir.
Hinterlant, ekonomik olarak limanı besleyen ve limanla etkileşen alanın tümüdür. Bir limanın hinterlandında sanayi tesislerinin, yer altı kaynaklarının ve tarım alanlarının bulunduğu alan ne kadar genişse liman da o oranda gelişir. Örneğin İstanbul Limanı’nın hinterlandı neredeyse ülkemizin tamamını, İzmir Limanı’nın hinterlandı da ülkemizin batı kısmını kapsar. İstanbul, İzmir, Mersin, İskenderun ve Samsun hinterlandı geniş olan başlıca limanlarımızdır. Buna karşın özellikle dağların uzanış doğrultusu limanların hinterlandını olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. Sinop Limanı’nın hinterlandının dar olması bu duruma örnektir.
Turizm şehirlerinde yaşayan insanların önemli bir kısmı, gelirlerini turizm ve onun çeşitlendirip desteklediği iş kollarından sağlar. Bu tür şehirlerde doğal ve beşerî turizm varlıkları bulunur. Turizm; ulaşım, ticaret, inşaat gibi diğer sektörlerin gelişmesini de etkiler. Paris, Roma, Venedik, New York, İstanbul, Antalya, Bodrum, Çeşme, Alanya, Marmaris, Fethiye ve Ürgüp turizm şehirlerine örnek verilebilir.
Maden şehirlerinde genellikle kömür, petrol, demir, bor gibi önemli madenler çıkarılmaktadır. Buralarda madencilik faaliyeti ön plandadır. Essen (Esın), Donetsk , Kerkük, Yakutsk, Zonguldak, Tavşanlı ve Soma maden şehirlerine örnek verilebilir.
Dinî işlevi olan şehirler, bir veya birden fazla dinî inancın merkezi ya da önemli dinî eserlerin bulunduğu yerlerdir. Bu şehirler, yılın belli dönemlerinde ya da tamamında ziyaret edilmektedir. Bu durum; ticaret, ulaşım, turizm gibi sektörlerin de gelişmesini etkilemiştir. Mekke, Medine, Kudüs, Roma ve Lhasa (Lasa) dinî şehirlere örnek verilebilir.
İnsanların barınma, korunma, dinlenme ve çalışma gibi ihtiyaçlarını karşıladığı yapıların tümüne mesken denir. Mesken tipleri bölgelere göre farklılık gösterir. Bunda bölgede yaşayan insanların sosyal ve ekonomik faaliyetleri ile bölgedeki doğal çevre koşulları etkilidir. Kırsal yerleşmelere ait meskenlerde doğal çevre koşullarının etkisi daha belirgindir. Şehirsel yerleşmelerdeki mesken tiplerinde ise ekonomik ve teknolojik koşullar etkilidir. Yapı malzemelerine göre başlıca mesken tipleri şunlardır:
Taş meskenler, en fazla Akdeniz Havzası’nda bulunan ülkelerde bulunur. Özellikle kalker, granit, bazalt, andezit gibi kayaçların fazla olduğu yerlerde bu meskenlere daha çok rastlanır. Bu kayaçlar; çimento, çamur gibi farklı malzemelerle de karıştırılarak mesken yapılabilmektedir. Ülkemizde Akdeniz iklim bölgesinde, Doğu Anadolu, İç Anadolu ve Güneydoğu Anadolu’daki volkanik araziler çevresinde taş evlere rastlanabilir.
Ahşap mesken, ağaç malzemenin kullanıldığı ve daha çok orman örtüsünün fazla olduğu kırsal yerleşmelerde görülür. Bu tür meskenler, ekvatoral ve muson iklim bölgelerinde, ülkemizde ise Karadeniz iklim bölgesinde yaygındır.
Toprak meskenler, yağışın az ve sıcaklık farkının fazla olduğu alanlarda görülür. Buralarda mesken yapımı için ağaç ya da taş malzeme bulmak zordur. Bu yüzden kırsal yerleşmelerde en kolay mesken yapı malzemesi olarak toprak kullanılır. Kil, mil, balçık en çok kullanılan toprak yapı malzemesidir. Kerpiç evler, toprak evlerin en tipik örneğidir. Toprak meskenler dünyada karasal iklim bölgelerinde, ülkemizde ise Orta ve Güneydoğu Anadolu’da yaygındır.
Betonarme meskenler; teknolojinin gelişmesine bağlı olarak tuğla, briket, çimento, çelik ve demir gibi malzemelerin kullanılmasıyla yapılır. Dünyada ve ülkemizde genellikle şehirlerde görülen ve doğal çevrenin etkilerinin en aza indirildiği mesken tipidir.
Diğer mesken tipleri; yeryüzü şekilleri, iklim ve bitki örtüsünün etkisiyle farklı tipte yapı malzemelerinin kullanıldığı meskenlerde görülür. Örneğin Kuzey Kutbu’na yakın bölgelerde igloo adı verilen meskenler bulunur. Eskimolar tarafından buz ve kar kullanılarak yapılmıştır. Tüf ya da kalker gibi kolay oyulabilen kayaçların şekillendirilmesiyle oluşturulmuş meskenler de bulunur.
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