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Sıcaklık Dağılışını Etkileyen Faktörler - Coğrafya Bilimi İçeriğe atla • Güneş
Atmosferdeki ve yeryüzündeki temel sıcaklık kaynağı Güneş’tir. Güneş olmasaydı yeryüzündeki sıcaklık -273 °C civarında olurdu. Güneş’ten gelen enerji miktarı değişmektedir. Güneş lekelerindeki (Görsel 1.61.) büyüme ve küçülmeler, Dünya’nın Güneş’e olan mesafesindeki değişmeler Güneş’ten gelen enerji miktarını da etkileyebilmektedir. Dünya, Güneş’e en yakın olduğu tarihte (3 Ocak) daha fazla enerji alır. Ancak bu durum, sıcaklıklar üzerinde büyük bir değişime neden olmaz.
Güneş’ten atmosferin üst sınırındaki 1 cm2lik yüzeye dakikada 2 kalori enerji gelir. Bu enerji miktarına Güneş sabitesi (Solar konstant) denir.
• Atmosfer
Güneş’ten gelen enerjinin tamamı yeryüzüne ulaşamaz. Çünkü atmosfer içindeki gazlar; Güneş ışınlarının yansımasına, dağılmasına ve emilmesine neden olur. Güneş’ten gelen enerjinin yaklaşık %43’lük kısmı yeryüzünü ısıtır (yeri ısıtan enerjinin tamamı %27 ve atmosferde dağılan enerjinin %16’sı). Eğer atmosfer olmasaydı Güneş ışınlarını doğrudan alan yerler çok sıcak, güneş almayan yerler ise aşırı soğuk olurdu. Ayrıca Güneş ışınları atmosferde dağıldığı için yeryüzündeki sıcaklık da dengelenir.
• Güneş Işınlarının Yere Düşme Açısı
Yeryüzündeki sıcaklık dağılışını etkileyen temel faktördür. Dik açıyla gelen Güneş ışınları dar alanlara, dar açıyla gelen Güneş ışınları ise geniş alanlara enerji verir (Görsel 1.63.). Bu da Güneş ışınlarının dik açıyla geldiği yerin daha çok ısınmasına, dar açıyla geldiği yerin ise daha az ısınmasına neden olur. Güneş ışınlarının geliş açısı; Dünya’nın şekline, günlük harekete, eksen eğikliğine ve yeryüzü şekillerinin özelliklerine göre değişir.
Dünya’nın Şekli
Dünya’nın şekline bağlı olarak Güneş ışınlarının yere düşme açısı Ekvator’dan kutuplara doğru daraldığından sıcaklık da genel olarak azalır. Buna enlem etkisi denir. Bazı durumlarda enlem etkisine ters düşen durumlar ortaya çıkabilir. Örneğin Sinop il merkezi, Ağrı il merkezine göre Ekvator’a daha uzaktır. Enlem etkisine göre Sinop’un Ağrı’dan daha soğuk olması gerekir. Ancak Sinop’un deniz kenarında Ağrı’nın da yükseltisinin (1.632 m) fazla olması, Sinop’ta yıllık ortalama sıcaklığın Ağrı’dan daha fazla olmasını sağlamıştır.
Güneş ışınlarının yere düşme açısı daraldıkça ışınların atmosferde aldığı mesafe uzar. Bu da atmosfer tarafından daha fazla enerjinin tutulmasına neden olur.
Dünya’nın Günlük (Eksen) Hareketi
Dünya’nın günlük hareketine bağlı olarak Güneş ışınlarının yere düşme açısı gün içinde değişir. Bu durum gün içinde sıcaklığın da değişmesini sağlar. Güneş ışınlarının yere düşme açısı, güneşin doğuşundan öğleye kadar sürekli artar. Öğle vakti gelebileceği en büyük açıyla gelir. Öğleden sonra ise güneş batana kadar Güneş ışınlarının yere düşme açısı küçülmeye başlar. Günün en sıcak vakti, genellikle ısı birikiminden dolayı yerel saate göre 12.00-14.00 saatleri arasıdır. Güneş battıktan sonra gündüz biriken enerji kaybolmaya başlar. Gece boyunca kaybedilen enerjiye bağlı olarak en düşük sıcaklıklar, genellikle güneşin doğmasına yakın vakitlerde görülür (Görsel 1.65.).
Yıllık Hareket ve Eksen Eğikliği
Güneş ışınlarının yeryüzüne düşme açısı yıl boyunca değişir. Bu da sıcaklığın değişmesine neden olur. Güneş ışınları, sadece dönenceler arasında kalan tropikal kuşağa dik ya da dike yakın açılarla düşer. Kutup kuşağına ise genel olarak eğik açılarla düşer. Bu yüzden tropikal kuşak ve kutup kuşağında Güneş ışınlarının yere düşme açısına bağlı olarak sıcaklıklar fazla değişmez. Ancak orta kuşakta Güneş ışınlarının yere düşme açısının belirgin şekilde değişmesiyle sıcaklıklar daha fazla değişir. Dört mevsim burada daha belirgin yaşanır. Bununla beraber, eksen eğikliğine bağlı olarak Kuzey ve Güney Yarım Küre’de aynı anda farklı mevsimler yaşanır.
Yeryüzü Şekilleri (Bakı, Eğim vb.)
Yeryüzü şekillerinin eğim özellikleri, dağların uzanış doğrultuları ve bakı-dulda durumları Güneş ışınlarının yere düşme açılarını etkilemektedir. Örneğin bakı olan yamaçlar, Güneş ışınlarını daha büyük açılarla aldığı için dulda yamaca göre daha sıcaktır (Görsel 1.67.). Kuzey Yarım Küre’de Yengeç Dönencesi’nin kuzeyinde bakı yönü, her zaman dağların güney yamaçlarıdır. Güney Yarım Küre’de ise Oğlak Dönencesi’nin güneyinde bakı yönü, her zaman dağların kuzey yamaçlarıdır. Dönenceler arasında Güneş ışınlarının yere dik düştüğü tarihe göre bakı yönü bazen kuzey bazen de güney olur (Görsel 1.68.). Ülkemiz Yengeç Dönencesi’nin kuzeyinde yer aldığı için dağların bakı yönü her zaman güneydir. Ayrıca eğimli yüzeylerde Güneş ışınlarının yere düşme açısına bağlı olarak sıcaklıklar kısa mesafelerde değişmektedir.
• Yükselti
Troposfer katmanında yerden yükseldikçe sıcaklık, her 100 metrede yaklaşık 0,5 °C azalmaktadır (Görsel 1.69.). Bu durumun nedeni havanın yerden yansıyan ışınlarla ısınmasıdır. Çünkü sıcaklığı tutan su buharı ve karbondioksit gibi gazlar, ağır oldukları için yeryüzüne daha yakındır.
Bir yerde ölçülen sıcaklık değerine gerçek sıcaklık denir. Bir yerin yükseltisinin deniz seviyesine düşürülmesiyle hesaplanan sıcaklığa indirgenmiş sıcaklık denir. İndirgenmiş sıcaklık şu şekilde hesaplanır:
Normalde troposferde yeryüzünden yükseldikçe sıcaklık her 100 metrede 0,5 °C azalır. Ancak bazı durumlarda yerden yükseldikçe sıcaklık azalmaz, tersine artar. Bu olaya sıcaklık terselmesi (inversiyon) denir. Sıcaklık terselmesi daha çok soğuk dönemlerde görülür. Bu dönemlerde baca ve egzozlardan çıkan zehirli gazlar, fazla yükselemediklerinden özellikle etrafı dağlarla çevrili alanlarda yığılarak hava kirliliğine neden olur.
• Güneşlenme Süresi
Bir yerin gün içinde güneşi gördüğü süreyi ifade eder. Yeryüzü ne kadar uzun süre Güneş ışınlarını alırsa ısı birikimi o kadar fazla olur. Aydınlanma süresi; mevsime, bakıya, enleme ve bulutluluk oranına göre değişiklik gösterir. Örneğin yaz mevsiminde gündüz süresinin uzaması sıcaklıkların artmasında etkili olmuştur. Ancak 6 ay gündüz yaşanan kutuplarda Güneş ışınları çok dar açılarla düştüğünden sıcaklıklar da düşüktür.
• Nemlilik
Atmosferdeki su buharına nem adı verilir. Nem bir yerin fazla ısınmasını ve soğumasını önler. Nem oranının fazla olduğu yerlerde havanın ısınması ve soğuması yavaş gerçekleşir. Günlük ve yıllık sıcaklık farkları az olur. Nem oranının az olduğu yerlerde ise havanın ısınması ve soğuması hızlı gerçekleşir. Günlük ve yıllık sıcaklık farkları fazla olur. Ekvator, yıl boyunca Güneş ışınlarını dik ve dike yakın açılarla alır. Ancak nem oranı fazla olduğu için dünyanın en sıcak yeri değildir. En yüksek sıcaklıklar, nem oranının az olduğu Ekvator’a en yakın yani 30° enlemlerindeki çöllerde ölçülür. Buralarda gündüz kavurucu sıcaklar görülürken gece de sıcaklık hızlı bir şekilde düşer.
• Kara ve Denizlerin Dağılışı
Kara ve denizler farklı ısınma özelliklerine sahiptir. Karalar çabuk ısınır, çabuk soğur; denizler ise geç ısınır, geç soğur. Kara ve denizlerin farklı ısınmasına bağlı olarak ortaya şu sonuçlar çıkmaktadır:
• Kuzey Yarım Küre’de en sıcak ay karalarda temmuz, denizlerde ise ağustostur. En soğuk ay ise karalarda ocak, denizlerde şubattır. • Kuzey Yarım Küre’de karaların oranı daha fazla olduğu için günlük ve yıllık sıcaklık farkları daha fazladır. • En yüksek ve en düşük sıcaklıklar karalar üzerinde ölçülür. Örneğin bugüne kadar en yüksek sıcaklık 56,7 °C olarak Kaliforniya’da (ABD), en düşük sıcaklık ise -89,2 °C olarak Vostok-II’de (Antarktika’daki Rus Üssü) ölçülmüştür. • Denizden esen rüzgârlar genellikle yazın serin, kışın ise sıcak karakterlidir.
• Okyanus Akıntıları
Dünya’nın ekseni etrafında dönüşünden, sürekli rüzgârlardan, yoğunluk ve seviye farkından dolayı okyanus suları yer değiştirir. Buna okyanus akıntıları denir. Ekvator ve çevresinden gelen okyanus akıntıları sıcak su akıntılarıdır. Bu akıntılar ulaştıkları yerin sıcaklığını yükseltir. Kutuplar ve çevresinden gelen okyanus akıntıları ise soğuk su akıntılarıdır. Bu akıntılar da ulaştıkları yerin sıcaklığını düşürür (Harita 1.27.).
• Rüzgârlar
Rüzgârlar, geldikleri yerin nem ve sıcaklık özelliklerini ulaştıkları alanlara taşır. Örneğin Ekvator ve çevresinden esen rüzgârlar, ulaştıkları yerlerde sıcaklığı yükseltirken kutuplar ve çevresinden esen rüzgârlar ise sıcaklığı düşürür. İstisnalar dışında Kuzey Yarım Küre’de güneyden esen rüzgârlar sıcak, kuzeyden esen rüzgârlar soğuktur. Güney Yarım Küre’de ise kuzeyden esen rüzgârlar sıcak, güneyden esen rüzgârlar soğuk karakterlidir (Görsel 1.70.).
• Diğer Faktörler
Yeryüzünde su, taş, toprak, kar, bitki örtüsü vb. unsurlar bulunur. Bunlar, Güneş ışınlarının yansıtma ya da emme özelliğine göre sıcaklığı etkiler. Örneğin su yüzeyi, Güneş ışınlarını büyük oranda geri yansıtır. Bu da ısınmayı geciktirir. Koyu ve mat renkli taşlar çabuk, açık ve parlak renkli taşlar ise geç ısınır. Nemli toprak, kuru toprağa göre geç ısınıp geç soğur. Kar örtüsü, beyaz ve parlak renkli olduğu için Güneş ışınlarını geri yansıtır. Gür bitki örtüsü; bulunduğu alanlarda gündüzlerin serin, gecelerin de ılık olmasını sağlar.
Sıcaklıkları aynı olan noktaların birleştirilmesi ile elde edilen eğrilere eş sıcaklık eğrisi (izoterm) denir. Yıllık sıcaklık dağılışlarını göstermek için eş sıcaklık eğrisi (izoterm) haritaları kullanılır. Gerçek sıcaklık değerlerine göre hazırlanan sıcaklık haritalarına gerçek sıcaklık haritası denir. Yükselti faktörü ortadan kaldırılarak hazırlanan sıcaklık haritalarına da indirgenmiş sıcaklık haritası denir.
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