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Doğal Kaynakların Tarihsel Serüveni - Coğrafya Bilimi İçeriğe atla Taş, madenler, toprak, hayvanlar, ormanlar, su, hava, rüzgâr, fosil yakıtlar, güneş ve çeşitli yer şekillerinden oluşan doğal kaynakların birçoğunun insanların avcılık ve toplayıcılık yaptığı dönemlerden itibaren kullanıldığını biliyor muydunuz? Oluşumlarında insan etkisinin hiç olmadığı bu doğal kaynakların önemli bir kısmı insanlık tarihinin her döneminde kullanılırken bir kısmının kullanımı ise Sanayi Devrimi’nin ardından gerçekleşmiştir.
a. Taşlar
Ekonomik faaliyetler başlamadan önce insanların tek geçim kaynakları avcılık ve toplayıcılıktı. Çevrelerindeki vahşi hayvanları avlamak için insanların kullandıkları ilk şey, çevrelerinde buldukları taş ve kaya parçaları olmuştur (Resim 7.1). Bu nedenle taşlar, insanların kullandıkları ilk doğal kaynaklardan biridir. Zaman içerisinde obsidyen gibi sert taşları yontarak sivrileştiren insanlar, bunu bir tahta sopanın ucuna bağlayarak ilk silahı icat etmişlerdir.
Bir doğal kaynak olarak taşların kullanımında ikinci önemli dönem çakmak taşının kullanımı olmuştur. Bu taşı kullanarak istediği zaman ateş yakabilen insanların hem beslenme rejimi değişmiş hem de soğuk havalarda ısınma sorunu ortadan kalkmıştır.
Taşların bir diğer kullanım alanı ise süs eşyası yapımı olmuştur. Güzel görünüme sahip çeşitli volkanik ve metamorfik kayaçlar, ilk çağlardan günümüze kolye, bilezik ve yüzük yapımında kullanılmıştır (Fotoğraf 7.1). Günümüzde işlenmesi kolay olan volkanik tüf, lületaşı ve oltu taşı gibi birçok taş, süs eşyası yapımında kullanılmaktadır.
Taşların kullanıldığı bir diğer alan ise yapı malzemesidir. Günümüzde mermer, granit, andezit gibi birçok taş, evlerde yapı malzemesi olarak kullanılmaktadır.
b. MadenlerMilattan önce 5000 ile 3000 yılları arasında yaşanan Kalkolitik Çağ, metalik madenlerin kullanıldığı ilk dönem olmuştur. İlk olarak diğer metalik madenlere göre işlemesi daha kolay olan bakırı işleyen insanlar, bu madeni eritip döverek ona biçimler vermişlerdir (Resim 7.2). Zamanla bakır ve kalayı eritip karıştıran insanlar daha sert bir metal olan tuncu bulmuşlardır. Bu yolla bıçak, balta, saban ve tekerlek çemberi gibi aletleri icat eden insanlar, aynı zamanda günümüzün en önemli sanayi kollarından biri olan demir-çelik sanayisinin de temelini atmışlardır. Günümüzde, özellikle taş kömürü enerjisinden yararlanılarak eritilen demir, çeşitli alaşımlarla karıştırılarak çelik hâline getirilmektedir. Elde edilen çelik, başta elektronik ve beyaz eşya ile otomobiller olmak üzere hayatımızın birçok alanında karşımıza çıkmaktadır.
İnsanlar için bir diğer önemli maden ise altın olmuştur. Her dönem değerini koruyan altın, ilk kez eski Mısır medeniyetinde kullanılmıştır. Altının ticari bir değer kazanması ise milattan önce 550 yıllarında Lidyalıların ilk altın parayı basmaları ile gerçekleşmiştir (Fotoğraf 7.2). Günümüz dünyasında altının yanı sıra, elmas ve yakut gibi madenler de çok değerlidir.
c. ToprakTarım Devrimi’nin gerçekleştiği Neolitik Çağ’dan itibaren önem kazanan ve önemi sürekli olarak artan toprak, son derece önemli bir doğal kaynaktır. Tarih boyunca meydana gelen savaşların çoğunun temelinde verimli tarım topraklarını ele geçirmek yatmaktadır. Toprağın tarımsal faaliyetler için kullanımı insanların yerleşik yaşama geçmelerini sağlayan en önemli faktör olmuştur (Resim 7.3). Kalkolitik Çağ’da sabanın icat edilmesi ile tarımsal üretim artmış ve tarım ürünleri önemli bir ticari malzeme hâline gelmiştir. Günümüzde makineleşme, gübreleme, ilaçlama ve sulama gibi yöntemlerle topraktan sağladığımız tarımsal verim yüksek boyutlara ulaşmıştır.
Tarımsal üretimin artması, toprağın bir başka alanda da kullanılmasını sağlamıştır. Üretilen tarım ürünlerinin saklanması için icat edilen çanak ve çömleklerin yapımında özellikle killi topraklar kullanılmıştır (Fotoğraf 7.3). Bazı bölgelerde hâlâ görülen kerpiç evlerin yapımında da ham madde olarak toprak kullanılmaktadır. Günümüzün önemli sanayi kollarından biri olan cam sanayisinin de ham maddesi topraktır.
ç. HayvanlarAvcılık ve toplayıcılıktan günümüze kadar geçen süreçte hayvanlar, insanların temel besin maddelerinden biri olmuştur. Avladıkları hayvanların etini tüketip deri ve kürkünden giyim malzemesi elde eden insanlar, Neolitik Çağ’da gerçekleşen tarımsal devrim esnasında bazı hayvanları da evcilleştirmişlerdir (Resim 7.4). İnsanlar, evcilleştirdikleri hayvanların sütünden, yününden, yumurtasından ve tarımsal faaliyetler esnasında gücünden yararlanmışlardır. Balık avcılığı da her dönemde insanların temel faaliyetlerinden biri olmuştur. Daha sonraki dönemlerde arıların ürettiği bal ve ipek böceğinin ürettiği ipek, ekonomik açıdan değer kazanan diğer hayvansal ürünler olmuştur.
d. Ormanlarİnsanların yararlandığı en eski doğal kaynaklardan biri de ormanlardır. Toplayıcılık döneminde doğal ortamda yetişen ağaçların meyvelerinden beslenen insanlar, daha sonra ağaç dallarından ve diğer bitkilerden kulübeler yapmıştır. İlk kap kacaklarını ağaçlardan yapan insanlar, ateşin bulunması ile birlikte ısınma amacıyla da ormanları kullanmaya başlamışlardır. Günümüzde de özellikle kalkınmamış ülkelerde ormanlar, yakacak elde etmek için kesilmektedir.
Sanayinin ilerlemesiyle birlikte ormanların kullanım alanı da genişlemiştir. Ahşap mobilya, yapı malzemesi, çeşitli ilaç ve kozmetiklerin üretiminde ağaçlardan yararlanılır. Günümüzün önemli sanayi kollarından biri olan kâğıt üretiminde de ağaçlar ham madde olarak kullanılmaktadır.
e. SuSu, insan yaşamının vazgeçilmez temel ögelerinden biridir. Her şeyden önce içecek su ihtiyacını karşılamak isteyen insanlar, tatlı su kaynaklarına yakın yerlerde yaşamışlardır. Tarımsal faaliyetler için de son derece önemli olan su kaynakları, Orta Çağ’dan itibaren bir enerji kaynağı olarak kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Debisi yüksek akarsu kenarlarına kurulan değirmenler, çeşitli tahılların öğütülmesi için kullanılmıştır. Su değirmenleri günümüzün hidroelektrik santrallerinin de temelini oluşturur (Fotoğraf 7.4). 1873 yılında su gücü ile çalışan dinamonun bulunması, bir enerji kaynağı olarak suyun önemini artırdı.
Bu gelişmeye bağlı olarak ilk hidroelektrik santral, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nin Wisconsin (Vizkonsin) eyaletinde 1882 yılında açıldı.
Su kaynakları içerisinde yer alan yer altı suları, jeotermal enerji ve ısınma ile maden suyu üretiminde kullanılırken deniz sularının hareketleri olan dalga ve gelgit olayı da özellikle gelişmiş ülkelerde bir enerji kaynağı olarak kullanılmaktadır. Ayrıca büyük nehirlerden, taşımacılıkta da yararlanılmaktadır.
f. Hava ve RüzgârAtmosferin yanı sıra atmosferde meydana gelen yatay hava hareketleri yani rüzgârlar da önemli bir doğal kaynaktır. Rüzgâr gücü özellikle Orta Çağ’dan itibaren bir enerji kaynağı olarak kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu dönemde özellikle Avrupa’da kurulan yel değirmenleri, aynı su değirmenleri gibi tahılların öğütülmesinde kullanılmıştır (Fotoğraf 7.5). Yel değirmenleri, günümüzde enerji üretiminde giderek daha fazla kullanılmaya başlanan rüzgâr santrallerinin de temelini oluşturmuştur.
Coğrafi keşiflerin yapılmasını sağlayan etkenlerden birinin de rüzgâr olduğunu söylersek yanılmış olmayız. Orta ve Yeni Çağ’da özellikle Avrupa devletlerinin yaptığı kalyon adı verilen büyük yelkenli gemiler, sürekli rüzgârları kullanarak Amerika Kıtası’na ulaşabilmiştir (Resim 7.5).
g. Fosil YakıtlarVarlıkları çok daha uzun zamandır bilinmesine karşın kömür, petrol ve doğal gaz gibi fosil yakıtlar Sanayi Devrimi ile birlikte önem kazanmıştır. Sanayi Devrimi’nin gerçekleşmesini sağlayan en önemli doğal kaynak taş kömürüdür. Bitki kalıntılarının fosilleşmesi ile oluşan kömürün yakılması sonucunda ortaya çıkan enerji, demiri eritmiş ve çeliğin elde edilmesiyle Sanayi Devrimi başlamıştır. Kömürün farklı türleri olan antrasit, linyit ve turba da enerji üretiminde ve ısınmada kullanılmaktadır. Isınma için kömürün kullanılması ilk kez Orta Çağ’da İngiltere’de gerçekleşmiştir.
Petrolün enerji kaynağı olarak kullanılması ise 1850’li yıllara dayanır. Günümüzde petrol, Dünya’nın en önemli enerji kaynaklarından biridir. Maliyeti yüksek olmasına rağmen birçok ülke zengin rezervlere sahip deniz tabanlarından bile petrol çıkartmaktadır (Fotoğraf 7.6).
Fosil kaynaklı yanıcı bir gaz karışımı olan doğal gaz, enerji üretimi amacıyla ilk kez 1920 yılında Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde kullanıldı. Boru hatları sayesinde kolayca taşınabilen doğal gaz, günümüzde dünya enerji tüketiminin yaklaşık %24’ünü karşılamaktadır.
h. GüneşTüm doğal kaynakların ve yeryüzündeki yaşamın kaynağı olan Güneş enerjisi, Orta Çağ’dan itibaren seralarda ve evlerin ısıtılmasında kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Güneş’ten enerji elde etme konusundaki çalışmalar özellikle 1970’lerden sonra hız kazanmıştır. Günümüzde Güneş enerjisi sistemleri teknolojik olarak ilerleme ve maliyet bakımından düşme göstermiştir. Birçok ülkede Güneş panelleri sayesinde elde edilen enerji, Güneş pillerinde depolanabilmektedir.
i. Yer ŞekilleriYer şekillerinin bir doğal kaynak olarak kabul edilmesi, turizm sektörünün Dünya genelinde yaygınlaşması ile gerçekleşmiştir. Bir ülkenin sahip olduğu dağlar, plajlar, koylar, mağaralar, çağlayanlar, kaplıcalar, göller, peribacaları ya da travertenler aynı zamanda bir gelir kaynağı da olabilmektedir. Bu doğal güzellikleri görebilmek için her yıl milyonlarca turist bir ülkeden başka bir ülkeye gitmektedir. Ülkeler, bu doğal oluşumlarını korumak için özel kanunlar çıkarmakta hatta bu alanları millî park hâline getirmektedir.
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