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Biyoçeşitliliğin Yeryüzüne Dağılışını Etkileyen Faktörler Nelerdir? - Coğrafya Bilimi İçeriğe atla Biyosferin coğrafi özellikler açısından dünyanın her yerinde aynı olmaması, bitki ve hayvan türlerinin yeryüzüne dağılışında farklılığa neden olmuştur. Canlıların bazıları karada, bazıları suda, bazıları da hem karada hem suda yaşamaktadır.
Ekosistemi oluşturan cansız ortamlar ile canlıları oluşturan bitki, hayvan ve insanlar arasında sürekli bir etkileşim vardır. Canlılarla cansız varlıklar arasındaki ilişki canlıların yeryüzüne dağılışını ve yaşam şekillerini etkilemektedir. Yeryüzünde biyoçeşitliliğin oluşup zaman içerisinde değişmesi, çeşitli faktörlerin etkisine bağlı olarak gerçekleşmektedir (Şema 1.1).
Fiziki (Doğal) Faktörler
Fiziki faktörler, biyoçeşitliliğin oluşmasında oldukça önemli bir etkiye sahiptir. Bitki ve hayvanlar, yaşamlarını devam ettirebilmek için ihtiyaç duyduğu maddeleri temin edebilecekleri alanlara doğrudan bağımlıdır. Canlıların beslenme, büyüme, üreme gibi yaşamsal faaliyetlerini sürdürebilmesi için yeryüzündeki şartların elverişli olması gerekir. Yaşam kalitesi açısından en uygun imkânlara sahip ortamlarda canlıların büyüme ve üreme kapasiteleri artar. Bu imkânlardan uzaklaşıldıkça yaşamsal faaliyetler açısından şartlar zorlaşır ve canlılar yaşamdan kopar.
İklim , biyosferdeki biyoçeşitliliğin oluşmasında ve dağılışında belirleyici faktördür. Yeryüzünde benzer bitki ve hayvan topluluklarının dağılışıyla iklim kuşakları benzerlik göstermektedir. Sıcaklık ve yağış, karalarda yaşayan canlıların dağılışını etkileyen en önemli iklim elemanlarıdır. Yeryüzünde biyoçeşitliliğin en fazla görüldüğü yer, yıl boyu sıcak ve nemli olan ekvatoral iklim bölgesidir. Bu bölgede yağışın fazla olması, yağmur ormanlarının yanı sıra orman altı bitki örtüsü bakımından da son derece zengin bir bölgenin ortaya çıkmasını sağlamıştır. Sıcaklığın yüksek olduğu bölgede yapraklarını dökmeyen ağaçlar yıl boyu meyve verir. Bu durum, otçul ve etçillerin bölgede yoğunlaşmasına neden olmuştur.
Çöl ikliminde yağışın az ve bitki örtüsünün cılız olması, canlıların yaşam şartlarını olumsuz etkiler. Kutup ve tundra ikliminde görülen düşük sıcaklıklar da biyoçeşitliliğin azalmasına neden olur. İklim, hayvanların göç hareketlerini de etkiler. Örneğin yağışların yaz mevsiminde yoğunlaştığı savan iklim bölgesinde yaşayan hayvanlar, kurak geçen kış mevsiminde bölgeden göç etmektedir. Benzer şekilde orta kuşaktaki birçok kuş türünün de soğuk dönemlerde Ekvator’a, sıcak dönemlerde ise kutuplara doğru göç ettiğini görmek mümkündür.
Bitkiler; sıcaklıktaki azalmaya bağlı olarak Ekvator’dan kutuplara doğru geniş yapraklı, karışık ve iğne yapraklı ağaçlar şeklinde kuşaklar oluşturur. Orta kuşaktaki bitkiler kışın yaprağını döker. Kurak iklim bölgelerindeki bazı bitkiler; su kaybı yaşamama adına sert, kalın veya tüylü yaprak sistemine sahip bir şekilde dizayn edilmiştir. Işığın miktarı ve süresi canlı yaşamını etkileyen diğer bir faktördür. Bitkiler; çimlenme, çiçek açma ve gelişme sürecinde ışığa ihtiyaç duymaktadır. Işık isteği fazla olan bitkiler sürekli güneş ışığından faydalanmak isterken bazı bitkiler ise ışığın az olduğu orman altında daha iyi gelişir. Bitkiler, fotosentezle güneş ışınlarından aldığı enerjiyi kullanarak organik madde üretir. Kutuplara yakın ve yüksek dağlık alanlarda yaşayan bazı bitki türleri, gün içinde sürekli güneş ışığını takip eder.
Rüzgârlar, polen ve tohumların taşınmasını sağlayarak bitkilerin yayılışını; sıcaklık ve nemi taşıyarak da bitki ve hayvanların dağılışını etkilemektedir.
Yeryüzü şekilleri, canlıların dağılışını etkileyen faktörlerden biridir. Yükseltiye bağlı olarak sıcaklığın azalması ve bir noktaya kadar yağışın artması, bitki ve hayvan türlerinin bir dağ yamacı boyunca çeşitlenmesini sağlamıştır. Yükselti arttıkça bitkiler; geniş yapraklı, karışık ve iğne yapraklı ormanlar ile dağ çayırları şeklinde kuşaklar oluşturur. Yüksek kesimlerde bitkiler, alçak kesimlere göre daha geç çiçek açmakta ve daha erken yapraklarını dökmektedir. Dar ve derin vadilerde ise çevredeki diğer yerlere göre farklı bir biyoçeşitlilik ortaya çıkabilir. Özellikle vadi içlerinde ve yüksek yerlerde relikt ve endemik canlılara rastlanır.
Biyoçeşitliliği artıran bir başka faktör, yeryüzü şekillerinin engebeli olduğu bölgelerde iklimin kısa mesafelerde değişmesi ve çeşitli iklim tiplerinin ortaya çıkmasıdır. Genel olarak engebeli bölgeler, yeryüzü şekillerinin düz olduğu bölgelere göre daha zengin bitki ve hayvan türlerine sahiptir. Dağların uzanış doğrultusu da canlıların dağılışında farklılıklar oluşturmaktadır. Yağış miktarı, dağların yüksek ve kıyıya paralel uzandığı alanların kıyı kesimlerinde artarken iç kesimlerinde ise azalmaktadır. Dolayısıyla kıyı ile iç kesimler arasında iklim özellikleri açısından farklılıklar ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu nedenle dağların denize dönük yamaçlarında biyoçeşitlilik iç kesimlere göre daha fazladır. Ayrıca dağların güneşe dönük yamaçlarında ışık isteği fazla olan canlılar, diğer yamaçlarında ise ışığa daha az ihtiyaç duyan canlı türleri yaşamaktadır. Bu bakımdan güneş ışığını doğrudan almayan alanlarda yaşayan canlıların gölgeli ortamlara uyum sağladığı görülebilir.
Suların yeryüzüne dağılışı ile canlıların dağılışı arasında sıkı bir ilişki vardır. Canlıların bir kısmı karalarda bir kısmı da sularda yaşamaktadır. Bazı canlılar ise hem suda hem de karada yaşayabilme özelliğine sahiptir. Su, kendi içinde yaşayan canlılar için bir yaşam alanı oluştururken karada yaşayan canlılar için de hayati bir öneme sahiptir. Canlıların bünyesinde belirli bir miktarda bulunan ve terleme yoluyla kaybedilen suyun yeterli düzeyde alınmaması, yaşamsal fonksiyonların tehlikeye girmesine neden olabilir.
Toprak, tüm canlılar için vazgeçilmez bir kaynak durumundadır. Bitkileri önemli ölçüde etkileyen bu kaynak, hayvan türleri içinse apayrı bir öneme sahiptir. Bazı hayvanlar yaşamlarını sürekli toprak içinde sürdürürken bazıları ise yaşamlarının belli bir kısmını toprak içine yaptıkları yuvalarında sürdürmektedir. Otla beslenen hayvanlar, toprağın verimli ve bitki örtüsünün gür olduğu toprakları tercih eder. Bitkiler, ihtiyaç duyduğu besin maddelerinin ve suyun önemli bir kısmını topraktan temin eder. Toprağın fiziksel ve kimyasal özellikleri, bitki ve hayvanların yaşam alanlarının oluşmasında oldukça etkilidir. Örneğin kireçli topraklarda yetişen bitkilere asitli toprakların bulunduğu alanlarda fazla rastlanmaz.
Paleocoğrafya Faktörleri
Canlıların yeryüzüne dağılışında bugünkü çevre şartlarının yanı sıra kıtaların hareketleri ve özellikle son jeolojik zamanda gerçekleşen iklim değişiklikleri etkili olmuştur. Kıtaların kayması sonucu, jeolojik zamanlarda meydana gelen yer kabuğu hareketlerine bağlı olarak kıta ve denizlerin dağılışında önemli değişiklikler meydana gelmiştir. I. Jeolojik Zaman’da Pangea adı verilen tek bir kıta ve bu kıtayı çevreleyen büyük bir okyanus bulunmaktaydı. Bu kıta, magmadaki konveksiyonel hareketlerin etkisiyle zaman içerisinde parçalanarak çok sayıda kıtaya bölünmüştür. Kıtaların birbirinden ayrılması, yeryüzündeki bitki ve hayvanların bulunduğu sahaların da birbirinden uzaklaşmasını beraberinde getirmiştir. Kıtalarda görülen bu uzaklaşma, farklı canlı türlerinin ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur.
İklim değişikliği, canlıların dağılışını doğrudan etkileyen bir faktördür. Bu değişiklik; bazı canlıların yayılış alanlarının daralmasına, bazılarının daha geniş alanlarda yayılış göstermesine, bazılarının da yeni iklim koşullarına uyum sağlayamayarak yok olmasına neden olmuştur. Tersiyer’de sıcak ve nemli iklim şartlarına bağlı olarak tropikal yağmur ormanları daha geniş alanlara yayılmış, çöl alanları ise daralmıştır. Son jeolojik zamanda görülen buzullaşma sonucu canlıların çoğu Ekvator’a göç etmiştir. Buzulların erimesiyle de bu göç hareketi, tekrar kutuplara ve dağların yüksek kesimlerine doğru gerçekleşmiştir.
Buzullaşma sonucu deniz seviyesi alçalırken karalar genişlemiş, buzulların erimesiyle de deniz seviyesi yükselirken karalar daralmıştır. Bu değişiklik denizlerin sığ kesimlerinde çok daha etkili olmuştur. Deniz seviyesindeki değişiklikler, karaların ayrılmasına veya birleşmesine neden olmuştur. Örneğin son jeolojik zamanda deniz seviyesinin alçalmasıyla Bering Boğazı kara hâline gelerek Alaska ile Sibirya’yı birbirine bağlamış ve buradan canlı geçişleri gerçekleşmiştir. Sıcaklığın artmasıyla canlılar, yaşadıkları yerlerden iklimin daha uygun olduğu alanlara göç etmek zorunda kalmıştır. Günümüzde ise küresel ısınma ve iklim değişikliği sonucu, bazı canlı türlerinin ortadan kalkabileceğini veya yaşamları açısından elverişli koşulların bulunduğu sahalara kayabileceğini söylemek mümkündür.
Biyolojik Faktörler
Canlıların yeryüzüne dağılışında insan faaliyetlerinin yanı sıra diğer canlıların da etkisi bulunmaktadır. İnsanların yeryüzündeki bitki ve hayvanların dağılışına etkisi genelde olumsuz olmakla birlikte olumlu etkileri de olabilmektedir. İlk çağlardan bu yana doğadan çeşitli şekillerde yararlanmaya çalışan insanlar; avcılık, bitki örtüsünün tahribi vb. faaliyetlerle bitki ve hayvanların dağılışını olumsuz etkilemiştir. Sanayi Devrimi’yle birlikte doğaya müdahalesi artan insanın canlıların dağılışına etkisi daha da belirginleşmiştir.
Bu anlamda günümüzde görülen aşırı avlanma, ormanların ve otlakların tahrip edilmesi, evsel ve sanayi atıklarının toprağı ve yer altı sularını; fosil yakıtların ise atmosferi kirletmesi gibi beşerî faaliyetler canlı türlerinin azalmasına yol açarak biyoçeşitliliği olumsuz etkilemektedir. Nesli tükenmekte olan hayvanların koruma altına alınması, doğal koruma alanlarının oluşturulması, biyoçeşitliliğin azalmasını önleyici yasalar çıkarılması ile bölgesel ve küresel ölçekte sözleşmeler imzalanması biyoçeşitlilik üzerinde insanların olumlu etkileri arasında sayılabilir.
Biyolojik faktörlerden olan diğer canlılar, ekosistemi oluşturma ve burada faaliyet gösterme adına birbirleriyle sıkı ilişki içindedir. Yeryüzünde bitkilerin gür ve çeşitli olduğu alanlarda hayvan türlerinin de çeşitlendiği görülmektedir. Her iklim bölgesinin farklı bitki örtüsüne sahip olması, değişik hayvan türlerinin bu alanlarda toplanmasına neden olmuştur. Ayrıca bitki ve hayvanların dağılışında görülen benzerlik, hayvanların çoğunun bitkilerle beslenmesinden kaynaklanmaktadır (Görsel 1.13).
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